ISRAK MIKRAJ

Dalam perjalanan itu juga baginda Rasulullah S. A. W. menghadapi gangguan jin ‘Afrit dengan api jamung dan dapat menyasikan peristiwa-peristiwa simbolik yang amat ajaib. Antaranya :
- Kaum yang sedang bertanam dan terus menuai hasil tanaman mereka. apabila dituai, hasil (buah) yang baru keluar semula seolah-olah belum lagi dituai. Hal ini berlaku berulang-ulang. Rasulullah S. A. W. dibertahu oleh Jibrail : Itulah kaum yang berjihad “Fisabilillah” yang digandakan pahala kebajikan sebanyak 700 kali ganda bahkan sehingga gandaan yang lebih banyak.
- Tempat yang berbau harum. Rasulullah S. A. W. diberitahu oleh Jibrail : Itulah bau kubur Mayitah (tukang sisir rambut anak Fir’aun) bersama suaminya dan anak-anak-nya (termasuk bayi yang dapat bercakap untuk menguatkan iman ibunya) yang dibunuh oleh Fir’aun kerana tetapt teguh beriman kepada Allah (tak mahu mengakui Fir’aun sebagai Tuhan).
- Sekumpulan orang yang sedang memecahkan kepala mereka. Setiap kali dipecahkan, kepala mereka sembuh kembali, lalu dipecahkan pula. Demikian dilakukan berkali-kali. Jibrail memberitahu Rasulullah: Itulah orang-orang yang berat kepala mereka untuk sujud (sembahyang).
- Sekumpulan orang yang hanya menutup kemaluan mereka (qubul dan dubur) dengan secebis kain. Mereka dihalau seperti binatang ternakan. Mereka makan bara api dan batu dari neraka Jahannam. Kata Jibrail : Itulah orang-orang yang tidak mengeluarkan zakat harta mereka.
- Satu kaum, lelaki dan perempuan, yang memakan daging mentah yang busuk sedangkan daging masak ada di sisi mereka. Kata Jibrail: Itulah lelaki dan perempuan yang melakukan zina sedangkan lelaki dan perempuan itu masing-masing mempunyai isteri / suami.
- Lelaki yang berenang dalam sungai darah dan dilontarkan batu. Kata Jibrail: Itulah orang yang makan riba`.
- Lelaki yang menghimpun seberkas kayu dan dia tak terdaya memikulnya, tapi ditambah lagi kayu yang lain. Kata Jibrail: Itulah orang tak dapat menunaikan amanah tetapi masih menerima amanah yang lain.
- Satu kaum yang sedang menggunting lidah dan bibir mereka dengan penggunting besi berkali-kali. Setiap kali digunting, lidah dan bibir mereka kembali seperti biasa. Kata Jibrail: Itulah orang yang membuat fitnah dan mengatakan sesuatu yang dia sendiri tidak melakukannya.
- Kaum yang mencakar muka dan dada mereka dengan kuku tembaga mereka. Kata Jibrail: Itulah orang yang memakan daging manusia (mengumpat) dan menjatuhkan maruah (mencela, menghinakan) orang.
- Seekor lembu jantan yang besar keluar dari lubang yang sempit. Tak dapat dimasukinya semula lubang itu. Kata Jibrail: Itulah orang yang bercakap besar (Takabbur). Kemudian menyesal, tapi sudah terlambat.
- Seorang perempuan dengan dulang yang penuh dengan pelbagai perhiasan. Rasulullah tidak memperdulikannya. Kata Jibrail: Itulah dunia. Jika Rasulullah memberi perhatian kepadanya, nescaya umat Islam akan mengutamakan dunia daripada akhirat.
- Seorang perempuan tua duduk di tengah jalan dan menyuruh Rasulullah berhenti. Rasulullah S. A. W. tidak menghiraukannya. Kata Jibrail: Itulah orang yang mensesiakan umurnya sampai ke tua.
- Seorang perempuan bongkok tiga menahan Rasulullah untuk bertanyakan sesuatu. Kata Jibrail: Itulah gambaran umur dunia yang sangat tua dan menanti saat hari kiamat.
Setibanya di masjid Al-Aqsa, Rasulullah turun dari Buraq. Kemudian masuk ke dalam masjid dan mengimamkan sembahyang dua rakaat dengan segala anbia` dan mursalin menjadi makmum.
Rasulullah S. A. W. terasa dahaga, lalu dibawa Jibrail dua bejana yang berisi arak dan susu. Rasulullah memilih susu lalu diminumnya. Kata Jibrail: Baginda membuat pilhan yang betul. Jika arak itu dipilih, nescaya ramai umat baginda akan menjadi sesat.
3. Semasa Mikraj (Naik ke Hadhratul-Qudus Menemui Allah):
Didatangkan Mikraj (tangga) yang indah dari syurga. Rasulullah S. A. W. dan Jibrail naik ke atas tangga pertama lalu terangkat ke pintu langit dunia (pintu Hafzhah).
1. Langit Pertama: Rasulullah S. A. W. dan Jibrail masuk ke langit pertama, lalu berjumpa dengan Nabi Adam A. S. Kemudian dapat melihat orang-orang yang makan riba` dan harta anak yatim dan melihat orang berzina yang rupa dan kelakuan mereka sangat huduh dan buruk. Penzina lelaki bergantung pada susu penzina perempuan.
11. Langit Kedua: Nabi S. A. W. dan Jibrail naik tangga langit yang kedua, lalu masuk dan bertemu dengan Nabi ‘Isa A. S. dan Nabi Yahya A. S.
111. Langit Ketiga: Naik langit ketiga. Bertemu dengan Nabi Yusuf A. S.
1v. Langit Keempat: Naik tangga langit keempat. Bertemu dengan Nabi Idris A. S.
v. Langit Kelima: Naik tangga langit kelima. Bertemu dengan Nabi Harun A. S. yang dikelilingi oleh kaumnya Bani Israil.
v1. Langit Keenam: Naik tangga langit keenam. Bertemu dengan Nabi-Nabi. Seterusnya dengan Nabi Musa A. S. Rasulullah mengangkat kepala (disuruh oleh Jibrail) lalu dapat melihat umat baginda sendiri yang ramai, termasuk 70,000 orang yang masuk syurga tanpa hisab.
v11. Langit Ketujuh: Naik tangga langit ketujuh dan masuk langit ketujuh lalu bertemu dengan Nabi Ibrahim Khalilullah yang sedang bersandar di Baitul-Ma’mur dihadapi oleh beberapa kaumnya. Kepada Rasulullah S. A. W., Nabi Ibrahim A. S. bersabda, “Engkau akan berjumapa dengan Allah pada malam ini. Umatmu adalah akhir umat dan terlalu dha’if, maka berdoalah untuk umatmu. Suruhlah umatmu menanam tanaman syurga iaitu lah HAULA WALA QUWWATA ILLA BILLAH”. Mengikut riwayat lain, Nabi Irahim A. S. bersabda, “Sampaikan salamku kepada umatmu dan beritahu mereka, syurga itu baik tanahnya, tawar airnya dan tanamannya ialah lima kalimah, iaitu: SUBHANALLAH, WAL-HAMDULILLAH, WA lah ILAHA ILLALLAH ALLAHU AKBAR dan WA lah HAULA WA lah QUWWATA ILLA BILLAHIL- ‘ALIYYIL-’AZHIM. Bagi orang yang membaca setiap kalimah ini akan ditanamkan sepohon pokok dalam syurga”. Setelah melihat beberpa peristiwa! lain yang ajaib. Rasulullah dan Jibrail masuk ke dalam Baitul-Makmur dan bersembahyang (Baitul-Makmur ini betul-betul di atas Baitullah di Mekah).
11x. Tangga Kelapan: Di sinilah disebut “al-Kursi” yang berbetulan dengan dahan pokok Sidratul-Muntaha. Rasulullah S. A. W. menyaksikan pelbagai keajaiban pada pokok itu: Sungai air yang tak berubah, sungai susu, sungai arak dan sungai madu lebah. Buah, daun-daun, batang dan dahannya berubah-ubah warna dan bertukar menjadi permata-permata yang indah. Unggas-unggas emas berterbangan. Semua keindahan itu tak terperi oleh manusia. Baginda Rasulullah S. A. W. dapat menyaksikan pula sungai Al-Kautsar yang terus masuk ke syurga. Seterusnya baginda masuk ke syurga dan melihat neraka berserta dengan Malik penunggunya.
1x. Tangga Kesembilan: Di sini berbetulan dengan pucuk pokok Sidratul-Muntaha. Rasulullah S. A. W. masuk di dalam nur dan naik ke Mustawa dan Sharirul-Aqlam. Lalu dapat melihat seorang lelaki yang ghaib di dalam nur ‘Arasy, iaitu lelaki di dunia yang lidahnya sering basah berzikir, hatinya tertumpu penuh kepada masjid dan tidak memaki ibu bapanya.
x. Rabbul-Arbab lalu dapat menyaksikan Allah S. W. T. dengan mata kepalanya, lantas sujud. Kemudian berlakulah dialog antara Allah dan Muhammad, Rasul-Nya:
Allah S. W. T : Ya Muhammad. Rasulullah : Labbaika. Allah S. W. T : Angkatlah kepalamu dan bermohonlah, Kami perkenankan. Rasulullah : Ya, Rabb. Engkau telah ambil Ibrahim sebagai Khalil dan Engkau berikan dia kerajaan yang besar. Engkau berkata-kata dengan Musa. Engkau berikan Dawud kerajaan yang besar dan dapat melembutkan besi. Engkau kurniakan kerajaan kepada Sulaiman yang tidak Engkau kurniakan kepada sesiapa pun dan memudahkan Sulaiman menguasai jin, manusia, syaitan dan angin. Engkau ajarkan ‘Isa Taurat dan Injil. Dengan izin-Mu, dia dapat menyembuhkan orang buta, orang sufaq dan menghidupkan orang mati. Engkau lindungi dia dan ibunya daripada syaitan. Allah S. W. T : aku ambilmu sebagai kekasih. Aku perkenankanmu sebagai penyampai berita gembira dan amaran kepada umatmu. Aku buka dadamu dan buangkan dosamu. Aku jadikan umatmu sebaik-baik umat. Aku beri keutamaan dan keistimewaan kepadamu pada hari qiamat. Aku kurniakan tujuh ayat (surah Al-Fatihah) yang tidak aku kurniakan kepada sesiapa sebelummu. Aku berikanmu ayat-ayat di akhir surah al-Baqarah sebagai suatu perbendaharaan di bawah ‘Arasy. Aku berikan habuan daripada kelebihan Islam, hijrah, sedekah dan amar makruf dan nahi munkar. Aku kurniakanmu panji-panji Liwa-ul-hamd, maka Adam dan semua yang lainnya di bawah panji-panjimu. Dan aku fardhukan atasmu dan umatmu lima puluh (waktu) sembahyang.
4. Selesai munajat, Rasulullah S. A. W. di bawa menemui Nabi Ibrahim A. S. kemudian Nabi Musa A. S. yang kemudiannya menyuruh Rasulullah S. A. W. merayu kepada Allah S. W. T agar diberi keringanan, mengurangkan jumlah waktu sembahyang itu. Selepas sembilan kali merayu, (setiap kali dikurangkan lima waktu), akhirnya Allah perkenan memfardhukan sembahyang lima waktu sehari semalam dengan mengekalkan nilainya sebanyak 50 waktu juga.
5. Selepas Mikraj
Rasulullah S. A. W. turun ke langit dunia semula. Seterusnya turun ke Baitul-Maqdis. Lalu menunggang Buraq perjalanan pulang ke Mekah pada malam yang sama. Dalam perjalanan ini baginda bertemu dengan beberapa peristiwa yang kemudiannya menjadi saksi (bukti) peristiwa Israk dan Mikraj yang amat ajaib itu (Daripada satu riwayat peristiwa itu berlaku pada malam Isnin, 27 Rejab, kira-kira 18 bulan sebelum hijrah). Wallahu’alam.
(Sumber : Kitab Jam’ul-Fawaa`id) Kesimpulannya, peristiwa Israk dan Mikraj bukan hanya sekadar sebuah kisah sejarah yang diceritakan kembali setiap kali 27 Rejab menjelang. Adalah lebih penting untuk kita menghayati pengajaran di sebalik peristiwa tersebut bagi meneladani perkara yang baik dan menjauhi perkara yang tidak baik. Peristiwa Israk dan Mikraj yang memperlihatkan pelbagai kejadian aneh yang penuh pengajaran seharusnya memberi keinsafan kepada kita agar sentiasa mengingati Allah dan takut kepada kekuasaan-Nya.
Seandainya peristiwa dalam Israk dan Mikraj ini dipelajari dan dihayati benar-benar kemungkinan manusia mampu mengelakkan dirinya daripada melakukan berbagai-bagai kejahatan. Kejadian Israk dan Mikraj juga adalah untuk menguji umat Islam (apakah percaya atau tidak dengan peristiwa tersebut). Orang-orang kafir di zaman Nabi Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam langsung tidak mempercayai, malahan memperolok-olokkan Nabi sebaik-baik Nabi bercerita kepada mereka.
Peristiwa Israk dan Mikraj itu merupakan ujian dan mukjizat yang membuktikan kudrat atau kekuasaan Allah Subhanahu Wataala. Allah Subhanahu Wataala telah menunjukkan bukti-bukti kekuasaan dan kebesaran-Nya kepada Baginda Sallallahu Alaihi Wasallam.
Mafhum Firman Allah S. W. T. : “Maha Suci Allah yang telah memperjalankan hamba-Nya pada suatu malam dari Al-Masjidil Haram ke Al-Masjidil Aqsa yang telah kami berkati sekelilingnya agar Kami perlihatkan kepadanya sebahagian dari tanda-tanda kebesaran Kami. Sesungguhnya Dia adalah Maha Mendengar lagi Maha Melihat.” (Surah Al-Israa’: Ayat 1). wallahua’lam..
SUMBER:
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Ethnic cleansing

Kita di Sabah belum ada Ethnic cleansing (menghapuskan sst kaum), tapi fobia kepada sesuatu kaum sudah makin terselah. ini juga bibit2 Ethnic cleansing. Perkara ini terjadi kerana mereka tidak dapat menerima kenyataan bahawa Allah menjadikaan kita berbangsa-bangsa. supaya kita saling mengenali. bukannya prasangka sesaama sendiri.

Apa itu Ethnic cleansing ?... wikipidia menyatakan>>>:


Ethnic cleansing "is a purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas. (Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 780)".[1]
An earlier draft by the Commission of Experts described ethnic cleansing as "the planned deliberate removal from a specific territory, persons of a particular ethnic group, by force or intimidation, in order to render that area ethnically homogenous." which it based on "the many reports describing the policy and practices conducted in the former Yugoslavia, 'ethnic cleansing' has been carried out by means of murder, torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, extra-judicial executions, rape and sexual assaults, confinement of civilian population in ghetto areas, forcible removal, displacement and deportation of civilian population, deliberate military attacks or threats of attacks on civilians and civilian areas, and wanton destruction of property. Those practices constitute crimes against humanity and can be assimilated to specific war crimes. Furthermore, such acts could also fall within the meaning of the Genocide Convention".[2]
Ethnic cleansing is not to be confused with genocide. These terms are not synonymous, yet the academic discourse considers both as existing in a spectrum of assaults on nations or religio-ethnic groups. Ethnic cleansing is similar to forced deportation or 'population transfer' whereas genocide is the "intentional murder of part or all of a particular ethnic, religious, or national group."[3] The idea in ethnic cleansing is "to get people to move, and the means used to this end range from the legal to the semi-legal."[4] Some academics consider genocide as a subset of "murderous ethnic cleansing."[5] Thus, these concepts are different, but related, "literally and figuratively, ethnic cleansing bleeds into genocide, as mass murder is committed in order to rid the land of a people."[6]
Synonyms include ethnic purification.[7]
Contents[hide]
1 Definitions
2 Origins of the term
3 Ethnic cleansing as a military, political and economic tactic
4 Ethnic cleansing as a crime under international law
5 Silent ethnic cleansing
6 Instances of ethnic cleansing
6.1 Early modern history
6.2 20th century
6.2.1 1920s-1930s
6.2.2 1940s
6.2.3 1950s
6.2.4 1960s
6.2.5 1970s
6.2.6 1980s
6.2.7 1990s
6.3 21st century
7 Criticism of the term
8 See also
9 References
9.1 Notes
9.2 Bibliography
10 External links
Definitions
The official United Nations definition of ethnic cleansing is "rendering an area ethnically homogeneous by using force or intimidation to remove from a given area persons of another ethnic or religious group."[8]
The term ethnic cleansing has been defined as a spectrum, or continuum by some historians. In the words of Andrew Bell-Fialkoff:
[E]thnic cleansing [...] defies easy definition. At one end it is virtually indistinguishable from forced emigration and population exchange while at the other it merges with deportation and genocide. At the most general level, however, ethnic cleansing can be understood as the expulsion of a population from a given territory.[9]
Terry Martin has defined ethnic cleansing as "the forcible removal of an ethnically defined population from a given territory" and as "occupying the central part of a continuum between genocide on one end and nonviolent pressured ethnic emigration on the other end."[10]
In reviewing the International Court of Justice (ICJ) Bosnian Genocide Case in the judgement of Jorgic v. Germany on 12 July 2007 the European Court of Human Rights quoted from the ICJ ruling on the Bosnian Genocide Case to draw a distinction between ethnic cleansing and genocide.
The term 'ethnic cleansing' has frequently been employed to refer to the events in Bosnia and Herzegovina which are the subject of this case ... General Assembly resolution 47/121 referred in its Preamble to 'the abhorrent policy of 'ethnic cleansing', which is a form of genocide', as being carried on in Bosnia and Herzegovina. ... It [i.e. ethnic cleansing] can only be a form of genocide within the meaning of the [Genocide] Convention, if it corresponds to or falls within one of the categories of acts prohibited by Article II of the Convention. Neither the intent, as a matter of policy, to render an area “ethnically homogeneous”, nor the operations that may be carried out to implement such policy, can as such be designated as genocide: the intent that characterizes genocide is “to destroy, in whole or in part” a particular group, and deportation or displacement of the members of a group, even if effected by force, is not necessarily equivalent to destruction of that group, nor is such destruction an automatic consequence of the displacement. This is not to say that acts described as 'ethnic cleansing' may never constitute genocide, if they are such as to be characterized as, for example, 'deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part', contrary to Article II, paragraph (c), of the Convention, provided such action is carried out with the necessary specific intent (dolus specialis), that is to say with a view to the destruction of the group, as distinct from its removal from the region. As the ICTY has observed, while 'there are obvious similarities between a genocidal policy and the policy commonly known as 'ethnic cleansing' ' (Krstić, IT-98-33-T, Trial Chamber Judgment, 2 August 2001, para. 562), yet '[a] clear distinction must be drawn between physical destruction and mere dissolution of a group. The expulsion of a group or part of a group does not in itself suffice for genocide. ECHR quoting the ICJ.[11]
Origins of the term
The term, ethnic cleansing, appears to have been popularised by the international media around 1992. However, the practice is much older than the term. The French carried out épurations after regaining Alsace-Lorraine at the end of the First World War when they forcibly removed Germans not descended from the population before 1871 when the territory became part of Germany.
During the 1990s, the term was used extensively by the media in the former Yugoslavia in relation to the wars in Croatia and Bosnia. The conflicting parties used widespread and systematic acts of persecution (murder, violence, detention, intimidation) against opposing populations, creating a such coercive and frightening atmosphere that the targeted population had no option but to flee or be forcibly deported. These acts were carried out from (at least) August 1991. Croats and Bosniaks were expelled by Serbs, Serbs and Bosniaks by Croats, and even Bosniaks expelled the perceived rival populations from their domains. This period of ethnic cleansing culminated in 1995, when the long-established population of Krajina was completely expunged. Serbs who remained, mostly elderly and helpless, were murdered by Croatian paramilitaries.[12]
As early as 1914, a Carnegie Endowment report on the Balkan Wars points out that village-burning and ethnic cleansing had traditionally accompanied Balkan wars, regardless of the ethnic group in power. However, the term "cleanse" was probably used first by Vuk Karadžić, to describe what happened to the Turks in Belgrade when the city was captured by the Karadjordje's forces in 1806.[13] Konstantin Nenadović wrote, in his biography of the famous Serbian leader published in 1883, that after the fighting "the Serbs, in their bitterness (after 500 years of Turkish occupation), slit the throats of the Turks everywhere they found them, sparing neither the wounded, nor the woman, nor the Turkish children".[14]
During World War II, Mile Budak laid down the Croatian plan to purge Croatia of Serbs: by killing one third, expelling one third and assimilating the rest.
On the 16th of May 1941, a commander in the Croatian extremist Ustaše faction, Viktor Gutić, said:
"Every Croat who today solicits for our enemies not only is not a good Croat, but also an opponent and disrupter of the prearranged, well-calculated plan for cleansing [čišćenje] our Croatia of unwanted elements [...]."[15][unreliable source?]
Only a month later (30 June 1941), Stevan Moljević (a lawyer from Banja Luka who was also an ideologue of the Chetniks), published a booklet with the title "On Our State and Its Borders". Moljević asserted:
"One must take advantage of the war conditions and at a suitable moment seize the territory marked on the map, cleanse [očistiti] it before anybody notices and with strong battalions occupy the key places (...) and the territory surrounding these cities, freed of non-Serb elements. The guilty must be promptly punished and the others deported - the Croats to (significantly amputated) Croatia, the Muslims to Turkey or perhaps Albania - while the vacated territory is settled with Serb refugees now located in Serbia."[16][unreliable source?]
In fact, the Ustaše carried out widespread persecution and massacre of the Serbs in Croatia during World War II, and on several occasions used the term "cleansing" to describe these acts.[17]
However, the concept of ethnic cleansing was not restricted to Yugoslavia during this period. The Russian term "cleansing of borders" (ochistka granits - очистка границ), was used in Soviet Union documents of the early 1930s to describe the forced resettlement of Polish people from the 22 km border zone in the Byelorussian SSR and Ukrainian SSR. This process was repeated on an even larger and wider scale in 1939–1941, involving many other ethnicities with allegedly external loyalties: see Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union and Population transfer in the Soviet Union.[10]
Most notoriously, the Nazi administration in Germany under Adolf Hitler applied a similar term to their systematic replacement of the Jewish people. When an area under Nazi control had its entire Jewish population removed, by driving the population out, by deportation to Concentration Camps and/or murder, that area was declared judenrein (lit. "Jew Clean"): "cleansed of Jews" (cf. racial hygiene).
Ethnic cleansing as a military, political and economic tactic
This section may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (June 2009)

The 12th anniversary of ethnic cleansing in Abkhazia, which was held in Tbilisi in 2005.
The purpose of ethnic cleansing is to remove competitors. The party implementing this policy sees a risk (or a useful scapegoat) in a particular ethnic group, and uses propaganda about that group to stir up FUD (fear, uncertainty and doubt) in the general population. The targeted ethnic group is marginalized and demonized. It can also be conveniently blamed for the economic, moral and political woes of that region.[citation needed][original research?]
Physically removing the targeted ethnic community provides a very clear, visual reminder of the power of the current government. It also provides a safety-valve for violence stirred up by the FUD. The government in power benefits significantly from seizing the assets of the dispossessed ethnic group.[citation needed][original research?]
The reason given for ethnic cleansing is usually that the targeted community is potentially or actually hostile to the "approved" population.[weasel words] Suddenly your neighbour becomes a "danger" to you and your children. In giving in to the FUD, you become as much a victim of political manipulation as the targeted group. Although ethnic cleansing has sometimes been motivated by claims that an ethnic group is literally "unclean" (as in the case of the Jews of medieval Europe), it has generally been a deliberate (if brutal) way of ensuring the complete domination of a region.[citation needed][original research?]
In the 1990s Bosnian war, ethnic cleansing was a common phenomenon. It typically entailed intimidation, forced expulsion and/or killing of the undesired ethnic group, as well as the destruction or removal of key physical and cultural elements. These included places of worship, cemeteries, works of art and historic buildings. According to numerous ICTY verdicts, both Serb[18] and Croat[19] forces performed ethnic cleansing of their intended territories in order to create ethnically pure states (Republika Srpska and Herzeg-Bosnia). Serb forces were also judged to have committed genocide in Srebrenica at the end of the war.[20]
Based on the evidence of numerous attacks by Croat forces against Bosnian Muslims (Bosniaks), the ICTY Trial Chamber concluded in the Kordić and Čerkez case that by April 1993, the Croat leadership from Bosnia and Herzegovina had a designated plan to ethnically cleanse Bosniaks from the Lašva Valley in Central Bosnia. Dario Kordić, the local political leader, was found to be the instigator of this plan.[21]
In the same year (1993), ethnic cleansing was also occurring in another country. During the Georgian-Abkhaz conflict, the armed Abkhaz separatist insurgency implemented a campaign of ethnic cleansing against the large population of ethnic Georgians.[citation needed] This was actually a case of trying to drive out a majority, rather than a minority, since Georgians were the single largest ethnic group in pre-war Abkhazia, with a 45.7% plurality as of 1989.[22] As a result of this deliberate campaign by the Abkhaz separatists, more than 250,000 ethnic Georgians were forced to flee, and approximately 30,000 people were killed during separate incidents involving massacres and expulsions (see Ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia).[23][24] This was recognized as ethnic cleansing by OSCE conventions, and was also mentioned in UN General Assembly Resolution GA/10708.[25]
As a tactic, ethnic cleansing has a number of systemic impacts. It enables a force to eliminate civilian support for resistance by eliminating the civilians — recognizing Mao Zedong's dictum that guerrillas among a civilian population are fish in water, it removes the fish by draining the water[citation needed]. When enforced as part of a political settlement, as happened with the forced resettlement of ethnic Germans to the new Germany after 1945, it can contribute to long-term stability.[26] Some individuals of the large German population in Czechoslovakia and prewar Poland had encouraged Nazi jingoism before the Second World War, but this was forcibly resolved.[27] It thus establishes "facts on the ground" - radical demographic changes which can be very hard to reverse.
For the most part, ethnic cleansing is such a brutal tactic and so often accompanied by large-scale bloodshed that it is widely reviled. It is generally regarded as lying somewhere between population transfers and genocide on a scale of odiousness, and is treated by international law as a war crime. Ethnic cleansing may be seen as a policy aimed to stabilise the borders of the State.[citation needed][original research?]

Armenian civilians, being cleansed from their homeland during the Armenian Genocide
Ethnic cleansing as a crime under international law
There is no formal legal definition of ethnic cleansing.[28] However, ethnic cleansing in the broad sense - the forcible deportation of a population - is defined as a crime against humanity under the statutes of both International Criminal Court (ICC) and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY).[29] The gross human-rights violations integral to stricter definitions of ethnic cleansing are treated as separate crimes falling under the definitions for genocide or crimes against humanity of the statutes.[30]
The UN Commission of Experts (established pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780) held that the practices associated with ethnic cleansing "constitute crimes against humanity and can be assimilated to specific war crimes. Furthermore ... such acts could also fall within the meaning of the Genocide Convention." The UN General Assembly condemned "ethnic cleansing" and racial hatred in a 1992 resolution.[31]
There are however situations, such as the expulsion of Germans after World War II, where ethnic cleansing has taken place without legal redress (see Preussische Treuhand v. Poland). Timothy V. Waters argues that if similar circumstances arise in the future, this precedent would allow the ethnic cleansing of other populations under international law.[32]
Silent ethnic cleansing
Silent ethnic cleansing is a term coined in the mid-1990s by some observers of the Yugoslav wars. Apparently concerned with Western media representations of atrocities committed in the conflict — which generally focused on those perpetrated by the Serbs — atrocities committed against Serbs were dubbed "silent", on the grounds that they were not receiving adequate coverage.[33]
Since that time, the term has been used by other ethnically oriented groups for situations that they perceive to be similar — examples include both sides in Ireland's recent conflict, and the expulsion of ethnic Germans from former German territories during and after World War II.[citation needed]
Some observers,[who?] however, assert that the term should only be used to denote population changes that do not occur as the result of overt violent action, or at least not from more or less organized aggression - the absence of such stressors being the very factor that makes it "silent", although some form of coercion is still used. The United States practiced this during the Indian Wars of the 19th century.
Instances of ethnic cleansing
This section lists incidents that have been termed "ethnic cleansing" by some academic or legal experts. Not all experts agree on every case; nor do all the claims necessarily follow definitions given in this article. Where claims of ethnic cleansing originate from non-experts (e.g., journalists or politicians) this is noted.
Early modern history
Edward I of England expelled all Jews living in England in 1290. Hundreds of Jewish elders were executed.[34]
Spain expelled its Jews in 1492, then its Muslims in 1502, forcibly Christianizing the remaining Muslim.[35] The descendents of these converted Muslims, called Moriscos were also expelled a century later, between 1609 and 1614 from the spanish realms.
After the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland and Act of Settlement in 1652, the whole post-war Cromwellian settlement of Ireland has been characterised by historians such as Mark Levene and Alan Axelrod as ethnic cleansing, in that it sought to remove Irish Catholics from the eastern part of the country, others such as the historical writer Tim Pat Coogan have describe the actions of Cromwell and his subordinates as genocide.[36]
On May 26, 1830, president Andrew Jackson of the United States signed the Indian Removal Act which resulted in the Trail of Tears.[37][38][39][40]
Michael Mann, basing his figures on those provided by Justin McCarthy states that between 1821 and 1922, a large number of Muslims were expelled from south-eastern Europe as Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia gained their independence from the Ottoman Empire. Mann describes these events as "murderous ethnic cleansing on a stupendous scale not previously seen in Europe, ...". These countries sought to expand their territory against the Ottoman Empire, which culminated in the Balkan wars of the early 20th century.[41]
In 2005, the historian Gary Clayton Anderson of the University of Oklahoma published The Conquest of Texas: Ethnic Cleansing in the Promised Land, 1830-1875/ This book repudiates traditional historians, such as Walter Prescott Webb and Rupert N. Richardson, who viewed the settlement of Texas by the displacement of the native populations as a healthful development. Anderson writes that at the time of the outbreak of the American Civil War, when the Texas population was nearly 600,000, the still new state was "a very violent place. . . . Texans mostly blamed Indians for the violence -- an unfair indictment, since a series of terrible droughts had virtually incapacitated the Plains Indians, making them incapable of extended warfare. . . . "[42]The Conquest of Texas was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize.
The nomadic Roma people have been expelled from European countries several times.[43]
20th century
This section may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (May 2009)
In December 2008 200 Turkish intellectuals and academics issued an apology for the ethnic cleansing of Armenians during World War I, an event that most Western historians view as amounting to a genocide.[44] At a conference of Hellenes victims of ethnic cleansing, held in February 2011 in Nicosia,an apology was demanded [45]
The Bolshevik regime killed or deported an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 Don Cossacks during the Russian Civil War, in 1919–1920.[46] Geoffrey Hosking stated "It could be argued that the Red policy towards the Don Cossacks amounted to ethnic cleansing. It was short-lived, however, and soon abandoned because it did not fit with normal Leninist theory and practice".[47]
The Nazi German government's persecutions and expulsions of Jews in Germany, Austria and other Nazi-controlled areas prior to the initiation of mass genocide. Estimated number of those who died in the process is nearly 6 million Jews.[48]
In the last months of the second world war, ethnic Germans were ethnically cleansed from Yugoslavia, Poland and Tchechoslowakia, beginning in the fall of 1944 and going through the spring and summer of 1945. At the Potsdam Conference 17 July-2 August 1945 the Allies agreed to transferring the rest (article XIII of the Potsdam communiqué). In all 14 million ethnic Germans were expelled and two million perished in the process [49]

Ustaše guard in a mass grave at Jasenovac concentration camp.
At least 330,000 Serbs, 30,000 Jews and 30,000 Roma were killed during the NDH (see Jasenovac) (today Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina).[50][51] The same number of Serbs were forced out of the NDH , from May 1941 to May 1945. The Croatian Fascist regime managed to kill more than 45 000 Serbs, 12 000 or more Jews and approximately 16 000 Roma at the Jasenovac Concentration Camp.[52][53]
During World War II, in Kosovo & Metohija, approximately 10,000 Serbs lost their lives,[54][55] and about 80[54] to 100,000[54][56] or more[55] were ethnically cleansed.[56] After World War II, the new communist authorities of Yugoslavia banned Serbians and Montenegrins expelled during the war from returning to their abandoned estates.[57]
Deportation of Crimean Tatars, Kalmyks, Chechens, Ingush, Balkars, Karachays and Meskhetian Turks by Soviet Union to Central Asia and Siberia, 1943–1944.[58]
The Population exchange between Greece and Turkey has been described as an ethnic cleansing.[59]
During the four years of wartime occupation from 1941–1944, the Axis (German, Hungarian and NDH) forces committed numerous war crimes against the civilian population of Serbs, Roma and Jews: about 50,000 people in Vojvodina (north Serbia) (see Occupation of Vojvodina, 1941–1944) were murdered and about 280,000 were arrested, raped or tortured.[60] The total number of people killed under Hungarian occupation in Bačka was 19,573, in Banat 7,513 (under German occupation) and in Syrmia 28,199 (under Croatian occupation).[61]
During the Axis occupation in Albania (1943–1944), the Albanian collaborationist organization Balli Kombëtar with Nazi German support mounted a major offensive in southern Albania (Northern Epirus) with devastating results: over 200 Greek populated towns and villages were burned or destroyed, 2,000 ethnic Greeks were killed, 5,000 imprisoned and 2,000 taken hostages to concentration camps. Moreover, 30,000 people had to flee to nearby Greece during and after this period.[62][63][Need quotation to verify]
At the end of World War II as many as 15 million ethnic Germans were expelled from eastern Europe, following major post-war international border revisions. Historians such as Thomas Kamusella, Piotr Pikle, Steffen Prauser and Arfon Rees all describe it as ethic cleansing. Kamusella he links it to the development of ethnic nationalism in central and eastern Europe.[64]
During the Partition of India 5 million Hindus and Sikhs fled from what became Pakistan into India and more than 6 million Muslims fled from what became India into Pakistan. The events which occurred during this time period have been described as ethnic cleansing by Ishtiaq Ahmed (an associate professor in the Department of Political Science, Stockholm University) [65][66]
1920s-1930s
The Kuomintang Chinese Muslim Generals Ma Qi and Ma Bufang launched extermination campaigns in Qinghai and Tibet against ethnic Tibetans, with Chinese Muslim troops. The actions of these Generals have been called Genocidal by some authors.
However, that was not the last Labrang saw of General Ma. Ma Qi launched a war against the Tibetan Ngoloks, which author "Dinesh Lal" calls "genocidal", in 1928, inflicting a defeat upon them and seizing the Labrang Buddhist monastery.[67] The Muslim forces looted and ravaged the monastery again.[68]
Authors Uradyn Erden Bulag called the events that follow genocidal and David Goodman called them ethnic cleansing:: The Republic of China government supported Ma Bufang when he launched seven extermination expeditions into Golog, eliminating thousands of Tibetans.[69] Some Tibetans counted the number of times he attacked him, remembering the seventh attack which made life impossible.[70] Ma was highly anti-communist, and he and his army wiped out many Tibetans in the northeast and eastern Qinghai, and also destroyed Tibetan Buddhist Temples.[71][72][73]
1940s
The 1948 Palestinian exodus of approximately 700,000 Palestinian Arabs who either voluntarily fled or were expelled during the 1947-1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine and the 1948 Arab-Israeli War that accompanied the establishment of the State of Israel has been described as an "ethnic cleansing."[74][75][76][77][78]
During the civil war in Palestine, Palestinian Arabs carried out massacres against the Jewish population of Safad, killings of Jewish workers at the Port of Haifa, and of Jewish doctors and nurses near Hadassah Hospital. During the 1948 war, two Jewish communities that were occupied by Jordan (Gush Etzion and the Jerusalem's Jewish Quarter) and one occupied by Egypt (Kfar Darom), were depopulated. While most residents were forced to flee, the inhabitants of Kfar Etzion, part of Gush Etzion, were massacred.
Between the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and the Six Day War in 1967, there was a Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim lands. Many Jews living in Arab and Muslim nations were forcibly expelled by authorities, while others fled due to antisemitic pogroms which broke out during the conflict.[79][80][81][82][83] Between 800,000-1,000,000 Jews fled or were expelled from the Arab World, and another 200,000 Jews from non-Arab Muslim nations fled due to increasing insecurity and growing hostility. A number were also killed in antisemitic violence. Most migrated to Israel, where today, they and their descendants constitute about 40% of Israel's population.
After the Republic of Indonesia achieved independence from the Netherlands in 1949, around 300,000 people, predominantly Indos, or people of mixed Indonesian and Dutch ancestry, fled or were expelled.[84]
In the aftermath of the 1949 Durban Riots (an inter-racial conflict between Zulus and Asians in South Africa), hundreds of Indians fled Cato Manor.[85]
1950s
On 5 and 6 September 1955 the Istanbul Pogrom or "Septembrianá"/"Σεπτεμβριανά", secretly backed by the Turkish government, was launched against the Greek population of Istanbul. The mob also attacked some Jews and Armenians of the city. The event contributed greatly to the gradual extinction of the Greek minority in the city and country, which numbered 100,000 in 1924 after the Turko-Greek population exchange treaty. By 2006 there were only 2,500 Greeks.[86]
Between 1957–1962 President Nasser of Egypt carried out an Anti-European policy, which resulted in the expulsion of 100-200,000 Greeks from Alexandria and the rest of Egypt. Many other Europeans were expelled, such as Italians and French.[citation needed]
1960s
On 5 July 1960, five days after the Congo gained independence from Belgium, the Force Publique garrison near Léopoldville mutinied against its white officers and attacked numerous European targets. This caused the fear amongst the approximately 100,000 whites still resident in the Congo and led to their mass exodus from the country.[87]
Ne Win's rise to power in 1962 and his relentless persecution of "resident aliens" (immigrant groups not recognised as citizens of the Union of Burma) led to an exodus of some 300,000 Burmese Indians. They migrated to escape racial discrimination and wholesale nationalisation of private enterprise a few years later in 1964.[88][89]
The creation of the apartheid system in South Africa, which began in 1948 but reached full flower in the 1960s and 1970s, involved some ethnic cleansing, including the separation of blacks, Coloureds, and whites into separate residential areas and private spheres. The government created Bantustans, which involved forced removals of non-white populations to reserved lands.[90][91] The governing minority forced relocation of the majority to different areas, as well as restricting their movement, education and social activities.[citation needed]
As Algeria fought for independence, it expelled the pied-noir population of European descent and Jews; most fled to France, where they had citizenship. In just a few months in 1962, 900,000 of these European descendants and native Jewish people left the country.[92][93]
Zanzibar forced ethnic cleansing of Arabs and Indians from the nation in 1964.[94][95]
Some 150,000 Italians settled in Libya, constituting about 18% of the total population.[96] In 1970, the government expelled all of Libya's ethnic Italians, a year after Muammar al-Gaddafi seized power (a "day of vengeance

diversity in nature

A response to the claim that ''If students do not learn about evolution they can never learn about the diversity in nature''

The idea that “If students do not learn about evolution they can never learn about the diversity in nature” is part of the mass hypnosis that Darwinists are trying to perpetrate. Darwinists spread the deceptive idea that someone who is ignorant of evolution can never know about the diversity in nature in order to spread the fraud that “evolution is part of science” and use that fraud in order to place evolution permanently in school curricula.
The fact is, however, that it is evolution that prevents people appreciating and understanding the extraordinary structures and glorious variety in life. It is impossible to be aware of beauty and appreciate its extraordinary nature if one is under the spell of a false religion that conditions people with the idea that everything is purposeless and random. It is certainly impossible to appreciate beauty as beauty, understand it, be affected by it and feel admiration for it so long as it is not appreciated.
Evolution is therefore like a plague that prevents people seeing and grasping the magnificent and glorious diversity and beauty on Earth.
It is impossible for people who believe in themselves to be descended from animals, who live devoid of purpose or spirit in an empty and aimless world, to delight in and appreciate, despite all its glory, the loveliness of a nature that they believed came about by chance as the result of accidents and errors. Even if they praise the beauty of nature, to whom can they direct that praise? Such people’s false god is unconscious, random and aimless chance. It is therefore impossible for someone who believes in evolution to love nature and draw any conclusions from it.
It is only possible to comprehend the glory in nature if Almighty Allah, the Creator of all beauty, so ordains. Only then can one appreciate and admire the beauty before one. Only then can one know He to Whom these beauties belong and understand that all praise must be directed toward Almighty Allah. One will then rejoice to think that these delights will never vanish but will exist for all eternity and in the most perfect and delightful forms in the hereafter. Only then can one attach meaning to and appreciate beauty.
Allah has created all entities. They are all under Allah’s knowledge and protection. The diversity on Earth is the artistry of Omniscient and Almighty Allah. Every detail exhibits glorious beauty so that one can appreciate Almighty Allah. Properly appreciating and understanding the extraordinary beauty in nature is a privilege bestowed on those who understand and appreciate Allah, in other words, on believers.
In conclusion, the imposition of a child is wrong in this regard, as it is on so many others. A child can only understand and appreciate the glory in nature if he is able to understand and appreciate the greatness of Almighty Allah. Allah tells us that for those who understand and appreciate our Lord’s might and greatness and who look through the eyes of faith, there are “signs,” or evidence, in each and every detail:
Allah is He Who raised up the heavens without any support – you can see that – and then established Himself firmly on the Throne. He made the sun and moon subservient, each running for a specified term. He directs the whole affair. He makes the Signs clear so that hopefully you will be certain about the meeting with your Lord.
It is He Who stretched out the earth and placed firmly embedded mountains and rivers in it and made two types of every kind of fruit. He covers over day with night. There are Signs in that for people who reflect.
In the earth there are diverse regions side by side and gardens of grapes and cultivated fields, and palm-trees sharing one root and others with individual roots, all watered with the same water. And We make some things better to eat than others. There are Signs in that for people who use their intellect. (Surat a-Ra’d, 2-4)
It is He Who created the heavens and the earth in six days, then established Himself firmly on the Throne. He knows what goes into the earth and what comes out of it, what comes down from heaven and what goes up into it. He is with you wherever you are – Allah sees what you do. (Surat al-Hadid, 4)
May 03, 2011

climate change

ah... kita hanya bisa melopong!!!

kelmarin saya tengok TV
Israel merobohkan hotel di Palestin
tidak banyak kita boleh buat
melopong saja....

hari tu saya tengok TV
saudara kita di Iraq bobrok sesama sendiri
goblok!
kita bisa melopong saja..

malam tadi saya tengok TV
bayi kecil ditinggalkan di kotak sampah
kasihan si kecil
angkarah perbuatan siok lima minit saja
apa kita boleh buat
melopong saja....

tadi saya tengok TV
kisah misteri menakluki layar
hantu
rogon
tompulanggoi
balan-balan
andahau....
karut marut
itu sajakah kreativiti kita
... kita bisa melopng saja...

ah... persetankan semua itu
paduli diurang
bukan aku....
kau..kau
...saya.... saya
itu kau punya hal
none of my bussiness
lantak kaurang lah

but...
akukan khalifah di bumi
kau juga khalifah di bumi
kita khalifah di bumi
... itu amanat kita
berserah kepada Yang Khalik
ayuh.... bangun
menorobos alam
kita bangun dari lena
yang diulit mimpi indah

... mari berjuang
kalau kita tidak merobah nasib kita
siapa lagi...

Kinorihingan tidak suka JIKA kita
sekadar bepeluk tubuh..
TAKOU.....!!!

atau...
kita hanya bisa melopong saja

12.30am.
Taman Inanam laut. motuj

kerja gila

dunia sudah gila
ada teluk.... ditimbus
ada bukit.... ditarah
ada anak.... dibuang


kerja gila
kita bukan berasal dari binatan... al an am
tapi perangai....
kalah binatang....

bila Charles Darwin
bilang... kita asal usulnya kera... binatang
semua marah
semua melaknat

betul...
DNA kita bukan dari monyet
bukan dari ambuk
bukan juga dari gobuk
bukan.... bukan....

tapi parangai
kalah-kalah binatang

.... ah
mungkin inilah cerita
The origin of spicies....

tubal macam binatang

kerja gila
kerja gila


palis
palis.....

APAKAH ITU TANAH?

1.1 APAKAH ITU TANAH?

Tanah mempunyai berbagai-bagai takrifan diantaranya ialah lapisan bumi yang diatas sekali (Kamus Dewan, 1989) dan lapisan atas bumi dimana tanam-tanaman hidup (Oxford Dictionary, 1984). Tanah perlu dibezakan mengikut disiplinnya – contohnya, sama ada tanah yang kita kaji (soil) atau sebidang tanah (land). Perkataan tanah yang digunakan di dalam teks ini, adalah merujuk kepada tanah yang kita kaji atau soil. Sungguh pun begitu kedua-duanya saling berkaitan kerana sebidang tanah (Land) mempunyai tanah yang kita kaji (soil), udara diatasnya dan air.

Tanah merupakan salah satu sumber semulajadi yang merupakan asas kehidupan. Bidang kajian tanah dikenali sebagai pedologi (pedon = tanah), yang mana bidang ini menyiasat bentuk luaran, cara pembentukan, sebaran dan pengelasan tanah. Kandungan nota ini lebih menjurus kepada proses-proses dan sifat-sifat tanah yang terdapat dinegara ini; sebahagian contoh-contoh yang berlaku diluar kawasan tropika tidak dihuraikan (seperti tanah di gurun atau tundra)

1.1.1 DEFINISI TANAH

Tanah ditakrifkan sebagai bahan semulajadi yang dinamik terdiri daripada bahan-bahan mineral, organik dan bahan hidupan yang melitupi sebahagian permukaan bumi dan boleh menyokong tumbuh-tumbuhan.

Tanah terdiri daripada empat komponen utama iaitu mineral, bahan organik, air dan udara. Komponen mineral terdiri daripada pasir, lodak dan lempung. Pengetahuan asas berhubung dengan tanah dan pengurusannya adalah satu keperluan penting. Tanah adalah nadi kepada kehidupan dimuka bumi. Kajian mengenai sains tanah bukan sahaja penting kepada ahli pertanian dan petani malah kepada jurutera, ahli ekologi, ahli alam sekitar dan sebagainya.

1.1.2 DEFINISI PENGURUSAN TANAH

Pengurusan tanah adalah segala usaha yang dilakukan kepada tanah untuk meningkat atau mengekalkan kesesuaian atau kesuburan tanah. Antara aktiviti-aktiviti pengurusan tanah adalah membajak, pembajaan, pengapuran, pengairan, saliran dsb.

1.2. KEPENTINGAN TANAH DALAM PERTANIAN

Diantara kepentingan tanah dalam pertanian ialah:-

i) Sebagai media untuk pertumbuhan tanaman

ii) Membekal nutrien kepada tanaman.

iii) Menyokong / memegang tanaman.

iv) Menyimpan dan membekal air kepada tanaman.

v) Menyediakan udara untuk pernafasan tanaman.

1.3 PROSES PEMBENTUKAN TANAH

Secara ringkasnya, tanah terbentuk daripada batu dan mineral melalui proses luluhawa. Sebarang batuan apabila terdedah kepada atmosfera buat beberapa waktu akan mengalami luluhawa. Pemecahan batu diikuti oleh proses pereputan atau penguraian.

Definasi Luluhawa : “ Satu proses semulajadi yang memecah, menghurai dan menukar batu batan dan mineral kepada unsur-unsur yang akan menjadi tanah.”

Bergantung kepada agen atau kuasa pemecah yang bertindak keatas bahan induk, proses luluhawa boleh dibahagikan kepada;

i) Luluhawa Fizikal

Proses fizikal atau mekanikal yang memecah batu batan tanpa mengalami perubahan susunan kimia dan tanpa adanya pembentukan mineral baru. Batuan boleh dipecahkan dan dihancurkan oleh agen-agen iklim seperti suhu, air dan angin.

Batu akan mengembang dan mengecut mengikut keadaan suhu. Pengembangan dan pengecutan batuan lama kelamaan memecah batuan dan akhirnya menjadi batu kecil. Kehadiran air dan angin akan mempercepatkan lagi proses pemecahan kerana ia mengangkut dan memindahkan serpihan batuan tersebut. Semasa diangkut / dipindahkan serpihan akan berlanggar dan bergeser diantara satu sama lain untuk membentuk unit yang lebih halus seperti pasir.

ii) Luluhawa Kimia

Disamping menukar bentuk fizikal bahan induk, luluhawa kimia juga menyebabkan perubahan kandungan kimia dan menghasilkan mineral-mineral baru. Ia melibatkan agen luluhawa yang terdapat dalam tanah seperti suhu, air dan asid. Kadar tindakbalas kimia meningkat dengan peningkatan suhu dan juga kelarutan komposisi mineral sesuatu batu.

iii) Luluhawa Biologi

Luluhawa biologi melibatkan organisma-organisma mikro, akar tumbuhan yang terdapat didalam bumi. Akar pokok besar apabila ia membesar dan menjalar boleh meretak dan memecahkan batu. Bahan organik yang sedang mengalami pereputan atau penguraian juga mengeluarkan asid organik yang akan memecah dan melarutkan batu-batan.

Secara ringkasnya proses pembentukan tanah melibatkan 4 perkara berikut:-

1. Penambahan bahan-bahan kedalam sistem tanah

2. Kehilangan bahan-bahan daripada sistem tanah

3. Pemindahan bahan-bahan dalam sistem tanah

4. Perubahan bahan-bahan dalam sistem tanah

1. Penambahan bahan-bahan ke dalam sistem tanah

Ia melibatkan penambahan bahan-bahan organik daripada pereputan sisa tumbuhan dan haiwan yang mati. Selain daripada bahan organik, bahan mineral juga ditambah kedalam sistem tanah melalui pemendapan, angin dan air.

2. Kehilangan bahan-bahan daripada sistem tanah

Ia melibatkan kehilangan bahan-bahan daripada permukaan tanah oleh hakisan yang disebabkan oleh angin atau air. Kehilangan juga boleh berlaku melalui larut lesap.

3. Pemindahan bahan-bahan dalam sistem tanah

Proses ini terbahagi dua iaitu:-

a) Eluviasi : Iaitu pergerakan bahan keluar daripada sesuatu bahagian tanah (daripada suatu horizon).

b) Iluviasi : Iaitu pergerakan bahan masuk ke dalam sesuatu bahagian tanah/ horizon

bahan yang terlibat didalam proses ini ialah mineral lempung, oksida, hidroksida, larutan garam dan humus.

4. Perubahan bahan-bahan dalam sistem tanah

Ia melibatkan pembentukan bahan-bahan baru samada bahan organik atau mineral daripada bahan asal.

Contoh: 1. Pereputan (decomposition) bahan organik kepada humus

2. Pembentukan lempung daripada mineral asal yang terdapat dalam batuan induk.

Perlu diingat tindakbalas diatas tidak berlaku berasingan. Dominasi sesuatu proses bergantung kepada faktor-faktor pembentukan tanah sebagaimana yang akan dibincangkan di bawah.

1.4 FAKTOR PEMBENTUKAN TANAH

Pembentukan tanah disebabkan oleh berbagai proses alam sekitar. Berdasarkan model yang dibangunkan oleh para pengkaji tanah, faktor-faktor pembentukan tanah boleh diringkaskan seperti berikut:

S = f( p, c, o, r, t )

Dimana:

S = Tanah

p = Bahan induk (bahan asal geologi atau organik)

c = Iklim (yang utama ialah hujan dan suhu)

o = Organisma (organisma hidup; tumbuhan asal, mikrob, haiwan tanah dan manusia)

r = Topografi (cerun dan kedudukan lanskap)

t = Masa (tempoh dimana mulanya bahan induk terdedah kepada pembentukan tanah)

Didalam konteks faktor-faktor ini, tanah adalah merupakan badan semulajadi yang dinamik, mempunyai sifat-sifat yang dihasilkan dari himpunan kesan iklim dan aktiviti organisma yang diubah oleh topografi, bertindakbalas ke atas bahan induk melampaui masa pembentukannya. Perlu diingat faktor-faktor ini berkaitan antara satu sama lain. (Catatan: Bagi memudahkan pemahaman faktor-faktor ini akan dihuraian satu per satu, berbanding interaksi antara faktor).

1.4.1 Bahan Induk

Ia merupakan faktor yang pasif dan menerima tindakan daripada faktor-faktor lain seperti iklim dan organisma. Kesenangannya diluluhawakan menentukan berapa cepat tanah terbentuk. Lebih keras keadaan semulajadi bahan induk itu, maka lebihlah masa yang diambil untuk memecahkannya. Pada umumnya bahan induk terdiri daripada dua kumpulan besar iatu:-

a) Bahan induk organik

Ia terdiri daripada himpunan tumbuh-tumbuhan dikawasan terendam air. Keadaan ini berlaku disebabkan kenaikan paras laut dimasa lampau menyebabkan bahan tumbuhan mengalami pereputan tak lengkap (keadaan anaerobik). Ia terdapat juga ditanah tinggi melebihi 1000 mapl, disebabkan suhu yang rendah walaupun tidak terendam air tetapi melibatkan kawasan yang tidak luas.

b) Bahan Induk batuan

Pembentukan tanah berlaku setempat hasil luluhawa keatas batu asal dan mineral. Sifat tanah yang terhasil berkait rapat dengan sifat batu dan mineral asalnya. Terdapat tiga (3) kumpulan batu-batuan ialah: i) Batu igneus ii) Batu Sedimen dan iii) Batu Jelmaan

i) Batu Igneus (Igneous Rock)

Batu Igneus adalah batuan yang terhasil dari aktiviti kerak bumi yang menolak magma yang cair keluar dan mengeras apabila sejuk lalu membentuk batu. Contoh batuan igneus adalah Granit, Basalt dan Andesit. Biasanya tanah yang terbentuk daripada batuan ini akan bersifat kasar dan berpasir, mempunyai kandungan bes yang rendah dan kurang subur.

ii) Batu Mendakan (Sedimentary rock)

Batuan ini berasal daripada mendakan yang dibawa oleh sungai, laut, angin dan juga daripada tinggalan-tinggalan hidupan yang terhimpun berjuta-juta tahun dahulu. Mendakan terkumpul sebagai lapisan yang berlapis-lapis. Akibat tekanan yang dihasilkan oleh lapisan atas yang baru dan bila sampai masanya lapisan-lapisan tadi akan menjadi keras untuk membentuk batu yang pejal dan berlapis-lapis.

Contoh batuan mendakan adalah Batu kapur (lime stone), batu lumpur (mud stone), Batu pasir (sand stone) dan Syal (shale). Tanah yang terbentuk daripada batuan mendakan biasanya mempunyai tetalan halus, kurang berpasir, kandungan bes tinggi dan lebih subur.

iii) Batu Jelmaan (Metamorphic Rock)

Batuan ini berasal daripada batuan igneus, batuan mendakan atau lain-lain batu jelmaan yang telah berubah sifat akibat kesan tekanan dan suhu yang tinggi. Batu-batu ini boleh mewarisi sifat batu asalnya atau bersifat baru (tidak menunjukkan sifat batu asalnya).

Contoh: Granit ® Amfibolait, Gneiss

Batu kapur ® Batu Marmar(marble)

Shal ® Slet (slate)

Batu pasir ® Kuartzait

1.4.2 Iklim

Dua faktor iklim yang penting dalam proses pembentukan tanah ialah suhu dan hujan.

a) Suhu

Suhu mempengaruhi :-

i) Jenis tumbuhan yang terdapat pada satu-satu kawasan.

ii) Tindakbalas kimia. Suhu yang tinggi mengakibatkan pereputan dan penguraian bahan organik yang cepat.

b) Hujan

Kesan hujan secara langsung :-

i) Membekal air untuk tindakbalas kimia ke atas batu-batan.

ii) Menghakis tanah menyebabkan profil tanah lambat terbentuk atau menjadi cangkat/cetek.

iii) Air hujan akan meresap (perkolasi) melalui ruang tanah dan melarut lesapkan beberapa mineral di lapisan atas.

Kesan hujan secara tidak langsung :

i) Dikawasan yang mengalami hujan yang tinggi atau lebat tanah mengalami larut lesap yang tinggi dan eluviasi yang kuat menyebabkan tanah berwarna cerah dan berlaku kekurangan zat makanan.

ii) Hujan juga mempengaruhi jenis dan populasi tumbuhan. Contohnya pokok hutan hujan tropika berbeza dengan pokok hutan mediteranean.

iii) Dikawasan padang pasir / kawasan arid hujan terlalu rendah, berlaku pengumpulan garam dipermukaan tanah dan kekuranga air. Umumnya kadar pertumbuhan pokok perlahan dan kurang terdapat pokok bersaiz besar.

1.4.3 Organisma

Secara ringkasnya, organisma boleh dibahagikan kepada 3 kumpulan iaitu: i) tumbuhan (flora); ii) makrofauna dan iii) mikro organisma.

a. Tumbuhan

Akar tumbuhan akan memecah batu-batan ketika mencari makanan. Proses ini berterusan sehingga batu menjadi tanah dengan bantuan agen luluhawa lain seperti asid organik dan air. Tumbuhan yang mati akan menjadi sumber bahan organik. Penguraian bahan organik menghasilkan asid-asid organik yang mana akan mempercepatkan proses pemecahan batu-batan untuk membentuk tanah.

Jenis tumbuhan, banyaknya kandungan bahan organik yang dapat dibekalkan oleh tumbuhan dan kadar penguraian bahan organik juga mempengaruhi proses kejadian tanah dan pembentukan profailnya. Sebab itu tanah dikawasan hutan hujan tropika tidak serupa dengan kawasan arid atau kawasan rumput.

b. Makrofauna

Binatang kecil hidup didalam ruang rongga tanah manakala lain-lain binatang besar menghuni lubang-lubang didalam tanah. Diantara sumbangannya adalah memecah bahan organik kepada cebisan yang lebih kecil, memakan bahan organik dan mencampurkan tanah dan humus. Binatang-binatang ini diantaranya antropoda, cacing tanah, siput, anai-anai dan lain-lain lagi.

b. Mikro-organisma

Termasuklah virus, bakteria, aktinomisit, protozoa, fungi dan alga. Sebagai contoh, bakteria memberi sumbangan diantaranya:-

i) Mengurangkan oksigen tanah menyebabkan keadaan jadi anaerobik (Keadaan Penurunan).

ii) Menguraikan bahan organik dan menghasilkan humus.

iii) Mengikat nitrogen (Rhizobacter) dari udara.